Early Occupational Therapy Intervention for Schizophrenia

Early Occupational Therapy Intervention for Schizophrenia The Potential value of Early Occupational Therapy Intervention  for Adults with Schizophrenia. Introduction (approx 250 words) In this discussion, we would stress on the importance of occupational therapy in the treatment of schizophrenia and in vocational rehabilitation of schizophrenic adults. The discussions begin with examining the causes and aetiology, prognosis and diagnosis of schizophrenia, the symptoms involved and the general outlook of the treatment. We look at stress factors, genetic vulnerability, deformities in the brain, chemical imbalance in hormones and neurotransmitters in the body, faulty neural connections, increased or decreased size of brain parts, viral infections at foetal stage and pre and post natal complications that can all contribute to schizophrenia. The clinical manifestation of the disease usually shows early onset in male adults and schizophrenia is rare in children and elderly persons. Symptoms of the disease show the presence of hallucinations, delusions, disordered and bizarre thinking, social isolation and extreme suspicion. The various types of intervention programs for treatment and care of schizophrenia are then discussed and these range from pharmacological interventions to psychotherapy such as cognitive behavioural therapy and occupational therapy, family and psychosocial interventions. The different types of interventions including psychological, occupational and clinical have been suggested by the NHS and Department of Health and the role of mental health services has been stressed. The guideline issued by the National Institute for Clinical Excellence (NICE) suggests the need for care across all stages of the disease with medical attention at the initial acute stage of the disease. Treatment of acute episodes promoting reduction of symptoms and application of tranquilizers have been identified as essential and we discuss in detail the importance of occupation and the role of occupational therapists in aiming to restore a healthy life for schizophrenics. Chapter 1 (approx 1200 words). Aetiology of schizophrenia – Several Factors The cause of Schizophrenia has not yet been conclusively established and several causes have been proposed. The interplay of genetic, behavioural, social and physiological factors may be responsible for the onset of the condition. Changes or deformities in the brain have been held responsible for development of schizophrenia although genetic factors are also important. Schizophrenia seems to run in families and a child born in a family with history of schizophrenia is 10 times more likely to develop the disease than anyone in the general population. Multiple genes are involved in developing a predisposition for schizophrenia although prenatal difficulties like intrauterine starvation or viral infections, peri-natal complications, and various non-specific stressors, seem to influence the development of the condition. However the mechanism of genetic transmission of the disease has not yet been established. Identification of specific genes in the human genome is underway and the strong est evidence suggest chromosomes 13 and 6 are responsible for susceptibility to schizophrenia. Some evidence that schizophrenia is related to imbalance in chemical systems of the brain suggests that neurotransmitters dopamine and glutamate are linked to the onset of the disease. Neuro-imaging studies have found abnormalities in the brain structure of schizophrenics with decreased or increased size of brain parts. However these brain abnormalities are not just present in people with schizophrenia nor are they common for all schizophrenics suggesting that these abnormalities may not have definite links with the disease. The National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) has categorised schizophrenia as a developmental disease resulting when neurons form inappropriate connections in the foetal stage of development. However these faulty connections can remain dormant and tend to affect only after puberty when changes in the brain seem to get adversely affected by these dormant faulty connec tions. Certain biochemical changes have been found through brain imaging techniques as preceding the onset of disease so changes in neural circuits as well as molecular changes exploring the genetic basis of brain abnormalities have all been linked as causes of schizophrenia. Recent studies have proved that schizophrenia and other mental ailments are caused by a combination of inherited genetic factors and external environmental factors and all current theories such as the chemical imbalance theory, genetic vulnerability theory, stress and vulnerability theory and complex disease theory reach similar conclusions. The two factors – genetic vulnerability and environmental vulnerability or stress and their effects on the body and brain have been found to play important role in Schizophrenia. Excessive stress, for example can trigger the release of certain hormones and result in increased levels of cortisol in the brain. Excessive cortisol in turn destroys nerve cells in the hippocampus that are responsible for memory and coordinating daily and complex tasks. The NHS emphasises that much of the available research on the aetiology of schizophrenia is consistent with a ‘stress-vulnerability‘ model of the illness (Nuechterlein Dawson, 1984 cited in NHS, 2005),a model which arguably has the greatest utility in integrating current biological,psychological and social findings. This paradigm suggests that individuals possess different levels of vulnerability to schizophrenia, which are determined by a combination of biological, social and/or psychological factors. It is proposed that vulnerability to schizophrenia will result in the development of problems only when environmental stressors are present. If the vulnerability of an individual is sufficiently high, relatively low levels of environmental stress might be sufficient to cause problems. If the vulnerability is much less, problems will develop only when higher levels of environmental stress are experienced. The model is consistent with a wide variety of putative causes of the disorder, as well as the differential relapse and readmission rates observed among people with schizophrenia (NHS report, on Schizophrenia 2005). 1.2 Clinical Presentation of Schizophrenia Early Onset. Schizophrenia is a disabling and chronic mental ailment and has been related to brain disorder. The disorder appears earlier in men and usually affects women later in life. The vulnerable age for the disease is late adolescence to early adulthood in most men and affects men of age 16 to 30 years and women in their late twenties to early thirties. The disease is marked by early onset and is rarely found in older men or children, although such cases of very early or late schizophrenic acute phases have been reported. The disease once affecting an individual can cripple him for a lifetime. People with schizophrenia can have delusions and hallucinations and can even be paranoid that leave them fearful, suspicious and withdrawn. They may be incomprehensible or disorganised in speech and actions and lead a life completely isolated and excluded from social interactions (Schretlen et al. 2000). In most conditions they lose contact with reality and their repeated, meaningless and sometimes wi thdrawn and sometimes aggressive behaviour can be frightening to other individuals. The onset of schizophrenia is marked by withdrawal and shocking changes in behaviour and is accompanied by hallucinations, delusions, paranoia and false personal beliefs and unreal experiences (WHO, 1980). Social isolation and unusual speech or thinking are found in this acute phase of the disease. Chronic schizophrenic symptoms or a continuing or recurring pattern of illness in a patient signifies the necessity for long term treatment including medication and the patient may even fail to recover normal functioning. 1% of the population has been found to have this disease and the NHS and WHO give a statistical data on schizophrenia and we will be providing here. Sometimes people with symptoms of schizophrenia may show depressive mood or bipolar disorder and in some cases individuals may be diagnosed with schizophrenia like symptoms also known as schizoaffective disorder. 1.3 Early Intervention Service Occupational Therapy (Core Skills). Comparing the effectiveness of skills training with occupational therapy, Liberman et al (1998) studied community functioning of outpatients with persistent forms of schizophrenia after the patients were treated with psychosocial and occupational therapy or given social skills training conducted by paraprofessionals. For the study 80 outpatients with persistent schizophrenia were randomly selected and received psychosocial occupational therapy or skills’ training for 12 hours every week for 6 months and this was followed by 18 months of case management in the community. Antipsychotic medication was also given by psychiatrists. The results of the study indicated that patients who received skills training showed greater independent living skills during a 2 year follow up of everyday community functioning. Liberman et al concluded that skills training can be effectively conducted by paraprofessionals with durability and generalization greater than that achieved by occupational th erapists who provide patients with psychosocial occupational therapy. Whitwell (2001) discuss early intervention as a strategy in the treatment of mental illness carried out by specialised and innovative projects and approaches. Early intervention approaches have grown rapidly in the last decade as it has been observed that schizophrenia reaches a peak of severity after 2-5 years of its onset and after this the disability remains the same or decreases , also known as the ‘plateau effect’ (McGlashen 1988). Most people remain untreated for the first 1 or 2 years of the onset of illness and when left untreated, the illness set out biological, psychological and social processes that add to the chronicity of the illness and the illness may actually become toxic triggering chemical changes in the brain. The ‘critical period’ hypothesis or the necessity to intervene and treat the condition early is essential for developing newer insights into the nature of the illness (Birchwood et al 1998).Early intervention is the strategy for trea ting psychotic illnesses during its early stages of development, involving shortening the duration of untreated psychosis and may also involve intervention even before the psychosis develops. Early intervention with flexible and assertive approach on the part of occupational therapists is important in full recovery or prevention of the disease. Chapter 2 (approx 2500 words), To evaluate the effects of schizophrenia on the individuals occupational performance 2.1 The Occupational Nature of Humans. Occupation of a human being refers to the role a person plays or an activity through which a person earns money or livelihood. With the emergence of occupational science and the realisation of health benefits of occupational engagement, there is a necessity for increased research into the occupational nature of humans. Chugg and Craik (2002) argue that engaging in occupations have a positive effect on an individual’s health and sense of well being, although in schizophrenia there is a decreased volition and reduction in occupation with lowered performance. Their study focused on the influences on occupational engagement for people with schizophrenia living in a particular community. They used semi-structured interviews and qualitative analytic approach. 4 male and 4 female participants aged 23 to 49 years described their occupational engagement and the associated influences. Content analysis along with coding was used to categorise the data and four main themes on health, rout ine, external and internal factors emerged from the study. The specific factors identified within these themes are medication, daily schedules, family, staff, work, self concept and life challenges. The role of occupational therapists to influence clients with schizophrenia to engage more successfully in occupations has been highlighted in the study. Wilcock (1999) claim that the relationship between occupation and health and well being of an individual is very complex and can be described in many ways. Wilcock claims that the definition of occupation that appear to appeal a wide range of people is a synthesis of doing, being and becoming. Wilcock reflects on a dynamic balance between doing and being which is central to healthy living and wellness and suggests that becoming what a person or a community is best suitable for is dependent on both the doing and the being. Doing is what Wilcock suggests, the synonym for occupation and it is not possible to envisage a world without occupation showing the importance and central role of the occupational nature of humans. Being is represented by notions such as nature and essence and encapsulates being true to ourselves and individual capacities in all that we do. Becoming adds to this an element or sense of future and holds in it the notions of transformation and self actualization. Wilc ock emphasises that becoming helps in actually enabling occupation with ideas on human development, growth and potential. The occupational therapists help people to transform their lives through enabling them to do and to be through the process of becoming. Philosophically, thus doing and being are integral to becoming and to occupational therapy, process and outcomes and Wilcock suggests how best to utilize these in self growth, professional practice, student teaching and learning and help individuals to influence a social and global change for healthier lifestyles. 2.2 Occupational Deficits associated with Schizophrenia Bejerholm et al (2004) suggest that schizophrenia is a complex disorder and has severe impacts in daily life. The human occupational pattern is considered as a product of person-occupation-environment interaction and the importance of exploring all these three factors have been stressed as essential to understand the daily occupational patterns among persons with schizophrenia. Bejerholm’s study used data obtained from 10 schizophrenic individuals and examined their time use reflecting on their daily occupations, social and geographical environments, emotional reactions and reflections on their occupational performance. The results of the study indicated stagnation in a participants’ occupational pattern and time use. The authors suggest that most activities by schizophrenics are not triggered by a facilitating environment but happen due to factors inherent in the person triggered by basic and immediate life needs or simply for the need of escaping reality and seeking s ocial isolation. The paper suggests that occupational therapists are capable of assisting people with schizophrenia to help reshaping the environment and help them to regain roles that involved interacting with the external environment. Breier (1998) claims that schizophrenia is characterised by cognitive deficits in several human domains and involve dysfunction in attention, information processing, memory and executive performance. These deficits are observed in family members of schizophrenics as well suggesting a heritable component in the disease. Cognitive deficits also predate the onset of schizophrenia suggesting that core components of schizophrenia are not secondary to medication side effects or to positive or negative symptoms. Cognitive abnormalities tend to predict occupational and social dysfunction is a major determinant of long term outcome. Breier points out that traditional neuroleptic drugs have been proven to be relatively infective for the deficits and atypical antipsychotic drugs may have cognitive properties. One of these antipsychotic agents, olanzapine increases norepinephrine and dopamine in prefronatal cortex and produces mediated disruption in information processing with mixed effects supp orting cognitive enhancing potential. Breier points out that that some recent trails, olanzapine, risperidone and haloperidol when used in comparative trials in early phases of schizophrenia have suggested that olanzapine demonstrates superiority for a number of cognitive domains over other antipsychotic drugs. Atypical drugs are increasingly used for the treatment of schizophrenia and may play even greater roles in the future. 2.3 The Value of Occupational Performance Occupational therapy helps in assessing and remediation of human performance deficits and closely associated with enhancing occupational performance. Occupational performance is measured as the ability to perform tasks that make it possible to carry out occupational roles in a manner appropriate to an individual’s developmental culture, stage of life, and environment. Functional performance is important to occupational therapy and is required for assessment of a person’s level of functioning and for assessing the efficacy of interventions. Occupational functioning measures can be made at various levels of complexity and occupational therapists need to measure the level at which a mentally disabled individual can work. The WHO classifies mental impairments on a functional hierarchy and provides the initial foundation according to which occupational therapists distinguish levels of functioning for various diseases. Lower levels of impairment signify dysfunction of organs and may not be accompanied by any impairment of functional ability. For example in case of diabetes or a related illness, a dysfunction of the pancreas may not involve impairments in occupational performance. Bio-mechanical and physiological aspects of motor performance are measured with the help of devices although measurements of occupational performance are a bit more complex as they involve an appraisal of abilities which can be measured, representing component parts of occupational performance. The importance of each of the component parts or abilities for measuring occupational performance can vary from one individual to another. Disability would usually refer to the inability to perform any particular physical task although m otivational issues are important as these help to overcome disabilities in a person. The highest level of impairment categorized by WHO is a handicap, in which any disability severely impairs a person from performing a social or physical role successfully. Occupational therapists seek ways in handicap patients and help them to overcome performance deficits. However handicap is more of a socially defined phenomena rather than a quantifiable impaired physical ability and not being able to fulfil a social role is a serve problem faced by mentally ill patients, especially in schizophrenia. Occupational therapists tend to restore the social and psychological involvement to an extent in schizophrenic individuals. The measurement of occupational performance needs to be understood in social and individual contexts as also in the context of individual function and development. 2.4 The Relevance of Occupation Occupational performance can be classified into four types according to the use of occupational performance as a generic frame of reference for national medical practice, as a frame of reference for occupational therapy curricula, as a term for the use of occupational therapists to explain practice and the use of occupational therapy to develop assessment tools. The concept of occupational performance is closely associated with therapy as performance indicated purposeful activity and consisted of areas in care, work and leisure activities. Skills in areas of performance are related life space of an individual and include the cultural, social and physical environment. Occupational performance is based on learning, developmental stages of sensory integrative functioning, social functioning, psychological functioning, cognitive functioning and motor functioning. Based on the framework for occupational performance, a consistent occupational therapy model could be developed and the Canadian Association of Occupational therapy outlined the generic conceptual framework of function for occupational therapy to be followed by clients, in work settings and in modes of practice. In general the notion of occupational performance is affirming the worth of a person as an active participant in his or her therapeutic relationship although this concept gets into difficulty for patients with severe mental ailments. The three areas of occupational performance have been described as self care, productivity and leisure activities and four performance components recognised are mental, physical, socio-cultural and spiritual. Townsend et al stated in achieving occupational performance, each individual both influences and is influenced by his or her environment (1997, p.71). 2.5 Early Intervention of Schizophrenia Department of Health objectives, NHS plan and guidelines of the Mental Health National Service Framework The NHS describes schizophrenia as a mental illness with substantial short and long term consequences for individuals, family, health and clinical services and society. One in hundred people experience schizophrenia in their lifetime with highest incidence of the disease in late teens and early 20s. People with schizophrenia suffer distress and long term disability and there is a lot of accompanied stigma and prejudice involved with the disease that can have negative effects on employment, relationships and life satisfaction. A person’s family is completely destroyed with schizophrenia and carers and family members also carry the burden of the disease and caring the person for a long time. A schizophrenic family member can be a stress to the entire family. Schizophrenia costs the NHS more than any other mental illness and consumes more than 5% of the NHS budget as it is associated with a loss of income causing serious personal, medical, social and economic problems. Stigmatiza tion, and discrimination is associated with schizophrenia and occur in wider society and diagnosis of the disease can have serious implications for a person’s career or social life. Even within the NHS, individuals with schizophrenia can receive substandard no psychiatric care as a result of professional ignorance and prejudice. However guidelines provided by the NHS are essential for improving services and provisions for schizophrenics. The NHS, DH and NICE guidelines for schizophrenia can be given as follows Schizophrenia: Core interventions in the treatment and management of schizophrenia in primary and secondary care, outlines best practice for health professionals caring for individuals with schizophrenia in a range of areas, including: Care across all stages (for example, the importance of working in partnership with service users and carers, and offering treatment in an atmosphere of hope and optimism) Initiation of treatment (for example, the development of early intervention services to provide appropriate care for people with suspected or newly diagnosed schizophrenia) Treatment of acute episodes (for example, the use of antipsychotic drugs as part of a comprehensive package of care that addresses the individuals clinical, emotional and social needs) Promoting recovery (for example, the use of psychological interventions such as cognitive behavioural therapy to prevent relapse and reduce symptoms) Rapid tranquillisation (for example, minimising factors that might increase need for rapid tranquillisation and outlining the principles health professionals should follow) The guideline has been developed by the National Collaborating Centre (NCC) for Mental Health. The recommendations in the schizophrenia guideline given by the NICE (National Institute for Clinical excellence- NHS) cover psychological treatments, treatment with medicines, and how best to organise mental health services in order to help people with schizophrenia. The guideline concentrates on services for adults of working age with schizophrenia and not on schizophrenia in childhood or schizophrenia starting in later life . The guideline also does not cover diagnosis and assessment tools in detail. It outlines the kind of treatment (medicines and psychological therapy) and services are of most help to people with schizophrenia, and whether treatment should be given as an outpatient, by a community mental health team, as an inpatient or in any other mental health service. It also outlines the role of GPs in managing and treating schizophrenia. The Specific aims of the guideline of NICE and NHS on Schizophrenia are given below: Source: NHS report on Schizophrenia treatment and Interventions guidelines Source: NHS, 2005 The NHS report points out that the treatment and management of schizophrenia took place in large asylums in earlier times although government policy initiated a programme to change this practice and this has been largely possible by the introduction of conventional antipsychotic drugs such as chlorpromazine, thioridazine, haloperidol. The NHS mentions several interventions methods such as pharmacological treatment, psychological interventions, service level interventions, primary-secondary care interface, physical health care, and skills training as effective for treatment and support for schizophrenic individuals. We would discuss these methods of intervention in the next chapter. Chapter 3. A Critical Analysis of Early Interventions used by Occupational therapists. 3.1 Psychosocial intervention Mueser and McGurk (2004) define Schizophrenia as a mental illness that is among world’s top ten causes of long term disability. The symptoms of schizophrenia include psychosis, apathy and withdrawal, cognitive impairment and these can lead to associated problems in social and occupational functioning as also problems with self-care. They also give the percentage of affected population at 1% across different countries, cultural groups and sexes. Mueser and McGurk point out that the illness develops between the ages 16 and 30 years and persists throughout the adult’s lifetime. Reiterating that the cause of schizophrenia is largely unknown, the authors claim that genetic factors, early environmental influences and obstetric complications, social factors such as poverty can contribute to the illness. Although pathophysiological differences exist in a wide range of brain structures , no biological alterations are symptomatic or pathognomic of schizophrenia. As for interventi on methods, the authors emphasize that antipsychotic medication is the mainstay for managing schizophrenia although a range of other psychosocial treatments such as family intervention, supported employment and occupational therapy, cognitive behavioural therapy for psychosis, social and skills training, teaching illness self management skills, assertive community treatment and other forms of integrated treatment for co-occurring substance abuse are equally important. In this section we would discuss several intervention methods and approaches highlighting on the three important ones including the broader category of psychosocial intervention, skills training and pharmacologic or medical treatments. Schizophrenia is a chronic disorder that can affect an individual during the early adult years or adolescent period of life. It is usually marked by acute and sometimes frequent relapses. In acute conditions, the main treatment method is controlling the symptoms and this is done with the application and administration of antipsychotic medication, psychotherapy and counselling and a variety of other methods. Antipsychotic medication prescribed by psychiatrists is the most common form of treatment and both older typical medication as well as newer anti-psychotics are used which are usually taken by the patient once in every two to four weeks. Injections given are usually thought to improve effectiveness of medication. Newer atypical anti-psychotics are generally used for acute episodes although there is very little evidence that they prevent relapses. Talking treatments and therapies involve meetings with therapists, general support and advice on illness and some deeper analysis may al so be involved. However certain types of therapies may not be effective treatments of acute symptoms although they may help in particular problems as in vocational rehabilitation or occupational therapy who are helped to learn self help skills and given vocational training or aided to get back to earlier work. Antipsychotic medication is sometimes given in combination with occupational and other types of therapy although these drugs may have many long term side effects. Typical anti psychotics were known to cause disorders in movement although the newer varieties may have other side effects such as weight gain. Talking therapies along with medication can help improve compliance with the antipsychotic medication given and increase general knowledge about the illness making patients more aware of their condition. Patients are usually treated by a team of professionals comprising of psychiatrists, occupational therapists, social workers and nurses. Community psychiatric nurses or CPNs treat outpatients and provide both therapeutic and medical help. Social workers tend to address family problems and related issues. Vocational rehabilitation is given by occupational therapists, psychiatrists give medical help and advice and clinical psychologists usually undertake psychotherapy and engage in talking cure remedial measures. Occupational therapy is skilled treatment helping affected individuals to achieve independence in all areas of life. Occupational therapy he

Pros and Cons of Inclusion Essay -- Education Disabled Children School

Pros and Cons of Inclusion Inclusion 'mainstreams' physically, mentally, and multiply disabled children into regular classrooms. In the fifties and sixties, disabled children were not allowed in regular classrooms. In 1975 Congress passed the Education of all Handicapped Students Act, now called the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). IDEA mandates that all children, regardless of disability, had the right to free, appropriate education in the least restrictive environment. Different states have different variations of the law. Some allow special needs students to be in a regular education classroom all day and for every subject, and others allow special education students to be in a regular education classroom for some subjects and in a separate classroom for the rest. There are many different views on inclusive education. In this paper I will address some of the positive and negative views on inclusion and ways to prepare educators for inclusive education. PROS Perhaps the strongest argument for greater inclusion, even full inclusion, comes from its philosophical/moral/ethical base. This country was founded upon the ideals of freedom and equality of opportunity. Though they have not been fully achieved, movement towards their fuller realization continues. Integration activists point to these ideals as valid for those with disabilities, too. Even opponents agree that the philosophical and moral/ethical underpinnings for full inclusion are powerful. (SEDL, 1995) Many agree that inclusion can be a positive experience for special education students, general education students and educators. Inclusive classrooms provide a diverse, stimulating environment for special education students. Vaughn and Klingner, 1995 found that special education students believe that inclusive classrooms provide them with more of an opportunity to make friends (Turnbull et al., 2004, p.70). Special education students who are included in regular education classrooms become part of a much larger learning community and they are able develop more of a positive self view. General education students also benefit from the diversity of an inclusive classroom. Duhaney and Salend, 2000 found that parents of children without disabilities identified benefits for their own children such as greater sensitivity to the needs of other children, more helpfulness in meeti... ...hanging concerns that their staff, parents, and others have as greater inclusion begins to be implemented. By attending to these issues, a more inclusive educational system is possible. (SEDL, 1995)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚   Works Cited Douvanis, G. and Hursley, D. (2002). The Least Restrictive Environment Mandate: How Has it Been Defined by the Courts?. Arlington, VA: The Council for Exceptional Children. (ERIC Document No. E629). Doyle, M.B. (2002). The Paraprofessional?s Guide to the Inclusive Classroom. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes. Goldstein, S. and Mather, N. (2001). Learning Disabilities and Challenging Behaviors. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes. Lindsay, G. (2003). Inclusive Education: a critical perspective. British Journal of Special   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Education. 30(1). Pappanikou, A.J. and Paul, J. (Eds.). (1997). Mainstreaming Emotionally Disturbed Children. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University. Shank, M., Smith, S., Turnbull, A. & Turnbull, R. (2004). Exceptional Lives Special Shore, K. (1986). The Special Education Handbook. New York, NY: Teachers College Southwest Educational Development Laboratory. (1995). Inclusion: The pros and cons.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Issues?about Change.4(3).

Science vs Religion Essay -- Religion vs Education Essays

"Religion is part of the human make-up. It's also part of our cultural and intellectual history. Religion was our first attempt at literature, the texts, our first attempt at cosmology, making sense of where we are in the universe, our first attempt at health care, believing in faith healing, our first attempt at philosophy." --- Christopher Hitchens With the loud protests of a small number of religious groups over teaching scientific concepts like evolution and the Big Bang in public schools, and the equally loud proclamations of a few scientists with personal, anti-religious philosophies, it can sometimes seem as though science and religion are at war. News outlets offer plenty of reports of school board meetings, congressional sessions, and Sunday sermons in which scientists and religious leaders launch attacks at one another. But just how representative are such conflicts? Not very. The attention given to such clashes glosses over the far more numerous cases in which science and religion harmoniously coexist. The fact is, there are a great number of Americans out there ...

Good Vs. Evil In Treasure Island Essay -- essays research papers

Throughout many works of literature, a prominent theme has been “Good vs. Evil';. Many authors base the plot of their novels around “good guys'; fighting the “villain';.Robert Louis Stevenson contrasts good and evil through many of the characters thathe creates. In the story “The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde';, Stevensoncontrasts the characters of Dr. Jekyll to Mr. Hyde to further the theme “Good vs. Evil';. This theme is common to many of Stevenson’s other works. In TreasureIsland, Stevenson uses the character Long John Silver to bring out this identicalidea. Long John Silver in many ways can be viewed the classic villain. But, whilereading this novel, one must be aware of the many other facets of Silver’spersonality that bring out his good nature. In Treasure Island and “The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde';, Robert Louis Stevenson incorporates the theme “Good vs. Evil'; in both of these stories through the split personalities of both Long John Silver, and Dr. Jekyll.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Robert Louis Stevenson’s theme of “Good vs. Evil'; is prominent in the novel Treasure Island. This story begins by introducing the protagonist of the novel Jim Hawkins. Jim works at an inn, which his mother owns. An old buccaneer is staying there by the name of Billy Bones who possesses a mysterious sea chest, which many people seem to want. While he was staying at the inn, many people attempted to steal the chest from the buccaneer. Billy Bones is a very heavy drinker, which may have been the cause of his death while staying at the inn. After the death, Jim’s curiosity for the old chest overwhelms him. Jim opens up the chest and finds to his pleasure an old treasure map. Jim immediately brings the map to Dr. Livesey, a friend of Jim’s family. Dr. Livesey and Jim decide to gather up a crew and sail to Treasure Island aboard the Hispanola to find the buried treasure. While looking for a cook, Dr. Livesey comes across a man by the name of Long John Silver. Because of Silver’s vast knowledge of the sea and his great cooking, he is named the head chef of the ship. Silver has other plans in mind though. As soon as he boards the ship, Jim sees him as a nice, intelligent man. This all quickly changes as he ove... ...ry Jekyll to an end'; (Jekyll p62).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Henry Jelkyll’s character is one full of uncanny genius, stubborn curiosity, and towards the end of the story unfortunately, despair. Hyde’s character is the complete opposite, one of malignancy and immorality. Jekyll’s genuine righteousness is exemplified by his own struggle with Mr. Hyde and eventually with his self-destruction. He realizes that Hyde will not cease his continuous onslaught of crimes, and pays the ultimate price for the well being of his friends and community. While one may say that suicide is an act of selfishness, Jekyll’s suicide must be looked upon as an honorable discharge from his life of woe.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  These two stories discuss the continuous battle between right and wrong which we encounter every day. Whether at work, school, or on a ship hunting for treasure, the choice between right and wrong will be made. Stevenson composed both of these pieces with that very idea in mind. The split personalities of Jekyll and Silver are fictional, but they represent the many daily temptations which all of us must resist every day of our lives.

Plagiarism and the Internet :: Cheating Education School Essays

Plagiarism and the Internet Copyright infringement, i.e., plagiarism is a crime that is occurring at epidemic rates in todayà °s society. Plagiarism can be found everywhere in this new age of technology. This is partially due to the fact that it is so easy to commit, as there are numerous resources on the Internet that people can use to pass off as their own work. However, it is also becoming easier to catch, as there are many sources on the web that work with people to catch those who are attempting to pass off other peoples ideas and words as their own. Today I decided to do a search on Yahoo about buying papers on the Internet. To my surprise over seven hundred thousand results came back with web sites where you could purchase a paper or essay of some sort. Although these web-sites all contain a disclaimer stating that under no circumstances should you try to pass their papers off as your own, the urge is just too hard to resist for some people. They see this as an easy way to get out of writing that paper they have been dreading working on even though it is illegal and these web sites state that you must site their web-site if you use any portion of the paper that they provided you with. Other people canà °t bring themselves to pay the money for a paper so they choose to simply cut and paste information from a web site with their topic into their own paper. Although there are many people that blatantly plagiarize, there are also some that do so unintentionally. It is easy to plagiarize if you dont know how to cite information in a paper properly. Countless amounts of people put quotes or the citation in the wrong place, which often results in plagiarism. This can also occur when a person does not properly paraphrase a statement that they got from a source. Therefore, it is quite easy to commit plagiarism whether you mean to or not. In this new decade of technology it is becoming easier for teachers and professors to catch plagiarizers, for example the web sites such as www.

Essays --

The People of the State of Michigan v. Ricky F. Smith is a court case where Mr. Smith’s juvenile record came into consideration during sentencing as an adult. Ricky F. Smith had an extensive criminal background as a minor. According to 437 Mich. 293, 470 N.W. 2d 70, defendant Ricky Smith had twelve criminal entries on his juvenile record. The twelve entries included seven prior felonies, three misdemeanors and two memorandums of charges. As an adult, Ricky Smith was arrested for breaking and entering with the intent to commit larceny as an adult. During the sentencing of the breaking and entering, as an adult, the judge took into account the alleged expunged juvenile record of the defendant. The Judge said that the sentence was imposed because Smith's record included seven prior felonies and three misdemeanors, and he viewed the sentence as appropriate to punish Smith, to protect society, and to deter others from committing like offenses. As a result Smith was sentenced un der a habitual offender statute that required a mandatory six to thirty years in prison (leagle.com, n.d.). Ricky Smith immediately appealed his sentence claiming that he would have only served a sentence of three and a half to ten years on the breaking and entering charge; however the presiding judge vacated that sentence and moved further with the habitual offender charge which carried a heavier sentence. Mr. Smith’s counsel appealed the lower court’s decision to the Michigan Court of Appeals on grounds that he was entitled to be resentenced because his earlier sentence was based on a â€Å"presentence investigation report† that contained a reference to his juvenile criminal record. According to Smith, this juvenile record should have been automatically ex... ...by counsel or waived representation. This construction would permit the probate court to maintain its own housekeeping system without imposing a "secondary source" rule on probation officers and trial Judges (leagle.com, n.d.). The court also recognized a modern view of sentencing and showed that a particular sentence is to balance of society’s need for protection and maximizing the rehabilitation of the offender. In order to do this, a judge must view the juvenile court history to reveal patterns of law breaking in an effort to reach an informed sentencing decision. The Court of Appeals, led by Justices Cavanaugh, C.J. and Binkly concurred with a decision to reverse and remand the case. Resource: leagle.com. (n.d.). People v. smith. Retrieved from http://www.leagle.com/xmlResult.aspx?page=1&xmldoc=1991730437Mich293_1713.xml&docbase=CSLWAR2-1986-2006&SizeDisp=7

Fahrenheit 451: Books - A Part Of Our Past :: essays research papers

Fahrenheit 451: Books - A Part of Our Past   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  One of the biggest issues raised in this book was the idea that people are starting to forget more about books and what they mean. People have started to take books for granted, instead of reading books they watch a movie or a program on the television. People do not realize that books, scrolls, manuscripts are a big part of our past.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Since the beginning of time, people have been recording things they saw, did and took part in on birch bark and later very primitive paper. People do not realize that without those scratching on the birch bark that we would have no recollection of the past. Sure there would have been word of mouth, but things would have gotten so turned around that it would not have been our past anymore, it would have been a made up one. In the time of Shakespeare there were no televisions, not even close to that technology yet. Who would we study and learn about, if no one had written things. Man kind would be studying the man who had invented the television because he would have been able to record himself, and then everything after that, which is only about fifty years. But without the recordings of Einstein and all the other famous scientists, television probably would not be invented that early.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In our day and age people are watching too much television. We figure that everything that is in books is on the television. If we need to learn about something we rent a movie about it or watch a show on it. No one reads books anymore just for the fun of it, or so they can read the paranormal, science fiction, horror, classics, fiction or non-fiction novel that surround our world. If we want to see stuff like that we will watch â€Å"The X-Files† or rent a Stephan King movie. Actually when you read books there is much more satisfaction about it. They help you develop your imagination which can be very good in many things. The description in them makes you use your brain to see the picture and the action behind it. The picture that comes into your head is more real than the picture on the television. It never seems like they just threw a dummy out the window, it actually looks real in your head. When you read stuff like â€Å"Moby Dick†, you actually see Captain Ahab and Ishmael and the rest of the crew trying to slay the great Sperm Whale, then you see the